Table 2 Studies on health risk factors of UN peacekeepers
From: UN peacekeeper health and risk factors --- a systematic scoping review
Health risk factors | Author/year | WHO regions: Troop-contributing countries | Host countries | Study designs | Main outcomes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Natural environmental factors | Hu et al. 2005 [64], Lehtom¨aki et al. 2005 [118], Jin et al. 2008 [67], Korzeniewski et al. 2011 [97], Chen et al. 2012 [119], Liang et al. 2014 [120], Zhao et al. 2019 [62], Liu et al. 2021 [114] | Western Pacific Region: China | The Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan | Medical report, Questionnaire, Retrospective control study | Natural environmental factors (harsh natural environment, poor geographical environment, hot climate, abundant rainfall). |
European Region: Finland | Kosovo | Questionnaire | Natural environmental factors (mold, fungi, dust). | ||
Multination | The Middle East | Medical report | Natural environmental factors (heat, wind, sand, dust, local fauna, low temperature, and mountain conditions). | ||
Social environmental factors | MacDonald et al. 1998 [121], Ballone et al. 2000 [38], Mehlum et al. 2002 [17], Thoresen et al. 2003 [122], Maguen et al. 2004 [123], Hu et al. 2005 [64], Ippolito et al. 2005 [47], Dirkzwager et al. 2005 [124], Wessely et al. 2006 [39], Jia et al. 2009 [49], Proctor et al. 2009 [125], Zhou et al. 2016 [104], Wang et al. 2018 [110], Dixit et al. 2018 [35], Lamb et al. 2018 [126], Zhao et al. 2019 [62], Silveira-Rodrigues et al. 2021 [127] | Western Pacific Region: China, New Zealand | The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Lebanon, Multination | Medical report, Questionnaire, Retrospective study | Social environmental factors (turbulent social environment, complex war environment, differences in language and culture, different rules and regulations in the second-level peacekeeping hospital, poor local hygiene conditions, family and job roles). |
European Region: Italy, Norway, Netherland, U.K. | Bosnia, Lebanon, Multination, West Africa | Cross-sectional study, Questionnaire, Cohort study | Social environmental factors (economic conditions, family relationships, unemployment, exposure to dangerous situations, lower level of education, reduced marriage rate, the lack of interoperability). | ||
South-East Asia Region: India | Multination | Cross-sectional study | Social environmental factors (Family Relationships). | ||
Region of the Americas: Brazil, U.S. | Haiti, Kosovo, Bosnia | Questionnaire, Cohort study | Social environmental factors (work-to-family enrichment support, family stressors and financial difficulties, differences in support structures). | ||
Psychological factors | Bramsen et al. 2000 [15], Dirkzwager et al. 2005 [124], Ippolito et al. 2005 [47], Maguen et al. 2006 [121], Souza et al. 2008 [24], Jia et al. 2009 [49], Proctor et al. 2009 [125], Shao et al. 2011 [53], Britt et al. 2011 [42], Orme et al. 2014 [128], Silva et al. 2015 [129], Zhou et al. 2016 [104], Lamb et al. 2018 [126], Zhao et al. 2019 [62], Gjerstad et al. 2020 [37] | Western Pacific Region: China, Australia | Timor-Leste or the Solomon Islands, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lebanon, Multination | Questionnaire, Retrospective study | Psychological factors (higher hardiness scores are associated with lower levels of reported psychological distress and physical ill-health, resilience, life stress events and emotional experiences, lack of patience, loss of emotional control, longing for family members, instability state of mind). |
European Region: Netherlands, Norway, U.K. | Lebanon, Yugosla, Multination | Cross-sectional study, Questionnaire, Interview | Psychological factors (personal barriers to disclose experiences and current unemployment, vulnerabilities and exposure to traumatic events, confidence and team cohesiveness to build personnel’s resilience). | ||
Region of the Americas: Brazil, U.S. | Haiti, Multination, Kosovo, Bosnia | Longitudinal study, Questionnaire, Cohort study | Psychological factors (negative affect traits, no associations with CD4 or CD8 T cell numbers, personality hardness, lack of confidence in care and fears of stigmatization). | ||
Behavioral lifestyle factors | Mehlum et al. 1999 [14], Alan et al. 2000 [130], Thoresen et al. 2004 [93], Xie et al. 2009 [71], Proctor et al. 2009 [125], Zhang et al. 2010 [52], Connorton et al. 2011 [30], Zhou et al. 2016 [104], Liu et al. 2021 [114], Qu et al. 2022 [131] | Western Pacific Region: China | Lebanon, Nigeria, Namibia, Ghana, The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Liberia, South Sudan | Retrospective study, Questionnaire, Medical report, Cross-sectional study | Behavioral lifestyle factors (group living, occupational activities and work-related stress, customs and lifestyles, training intensity, intensive labor, performing tasks at high temperatures, coping styles and resilience). |
European Region: Norway | South Lebanon, Multination | Questionnaire, Interview | Behavioral lifestyle factors (alcohol consumption, Misuse of alcohol and other substances, suicide risk factors) | ||
Region of the Americas: U.S. | Somalia, Bosnia | Questionnaire, Cohort study | Behavioral lifestyle factors (combat and sexual harassment, completing high demands and low control tasks). | ||
Multination | Kosovo | Questionnaire | Behavioral lifestyle factors (Combat, alone, peacekeeping relief work). | ||
Biological factors | Hu et al. 2005 [64], Shao et al. 2011 [53], Wang et al. 2018 [110] | Western Pacific Region: China | Mali, Lebanon, The Democratic Republic of the Congo | Medical report, Questionnaire | Biological factors (poor sanitary conditions, high prevalence of severe infectious diseases, high resistance to malaria parasites). |
Health service factors | Hu et al. 2005 [64], Shao et al. 2011 [53], Wang et al. 2018 [110] | Western Pacific Region: China | Mali, Lebanon, The Democratic Republic of the Congo | Medical report, Questionnaire | Health service factors (difficult collection and follow-up of case data, increasing acute mental health stressors through counseling and protection, anti-malaria medicines and materials). |