From: Identifying the research gap of zoonotic disease in displacement: a systematic review
Zoonoses | Symptoms in humans | Transmission | Main risk factors | Geographical locations |
---|---|---|---|---|
Contamination and direct transmission | ||||
Salmonellosis (caused by non-typhoidal Salmonella) | acute abdominal pain, diarrhoea, nausea, fever, and sometimes vomiting | contaminated water and food, livestock products, contact with infected animals | living conditions: lack of hygiene, especially of food | Asia [16], Bangladesh [27], Indonesia [17, 18], Syria [28], EU [5, 29], Italy [29], US [18, 30], Haiti [15]. |
Foodborne infections (caused by E. coli), respiratory illness, pneumonia | diarrhea, vomiting, fever, respiratory disease symptoms | contaminated water and food, livestock products, contact with infected animals | living conditions: lack of hygiene, especially of food | Bangladesh [18, 27, 31, 32], Thailand [16], Syria [28], EU [29], Denmark [29], US [30], Haiti [15]. |
Hepatitis E | yellow skin, secretions, tiredness, fever, vomiting, nausea, abdominal pain, loss of appetite; liver failure, death during pregnancy | human sewage contaminated food and water; eating undercooked pig meat | living conditions: lack of hygiene | Sub-Saharan Africa [16], Ethiopia [14], Kenya [14], Somalia [14], Sudan [27, 32,33,34,35,36], South Sudan [34], Asia [16], Bangladesh [31], India [32], Nepal [37], Pakistan [17, 18, 22, 37], Indonesia [17, 18], Thailand [38], Turkey [29] |
Leptospirosis | fever, headache, nausea, loss of appetite, jaundice, swollen limbs, chest pain, shortness of breath, coughing blood | contaminated soil and water, animal urine | injuries, skin lesions; occupational exposure | Southeast Asia [38], Philippines [27], Thailand [17, 38], China [17], India [17, 18, 32], Nepal [37], Pakistan [22], Taiwan [17, 18], Puerto Rico [16], Central and South America [39] Argentina [18], Brazil [18], Nicaragua [39], Caribbean [24], Haiti [15, 39], Austria [29], Bulgaria [29], Germany [29], France [29], Russia [29]. |
Bovine tuberculosis | weakness, loss of appetite, weight loss, fluctuating fever, intermittent cough, diarrhoea, large prominent lymph nodes | eating or drinking contaminated, unpasteurized dairy products direct contact with infected animals or contaminated tissues during slaughter | animal husbandry; living conditions; occupational exposure; wildlife reservoirs | |
Brucellosis | fluctuating fever, body ache, weight loss, weakness, abdonimal pain | contact with aborted foetuses, vaginal fluids, placentae, placental fluids, urine, semen, feces and hygroma fluids fomites, milk | occupational exposure; ingesting unpasteurised dairy products | Africa [40], Algeria [41], Nigeria [12], Tanzania [2], Somalia [42], Mongolia [2], Nepal [37], Syria [28]. |
Rabies | rapidly progessive fatal encephalitis, preceded by generalised arousal or hyperexcitability and hydrophobia; progressive lower motor neuron weakness, paralysis | animal bites (especially dogs) | free roaming dogs; wildlife, rarely pets | Africa [3, 40], Algeria [41], Chad [6], Malawi [2], Niger [6], Indonesia [24], Myanmar [6], Nepal [37], Thailand [38], Syria [28], Cuba [24], Haiti [15, 39]. |
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS | fever, cough, shortness of breath, pneumonia, gastrointestinal symptoms, diarrhoea; respiratory failure | transmission in unprotected healthcare settings; dromedary contact, undercooked meat | lack of quality healthcare | |
Lassa Hemorrhagic Fever | fever, malaise, headache, sore throat, muscle pain, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, cough, abdominal pain; bleeding, low blood pressure and death | contaminated food or other items by infected rats; transmission in unprotected healthcare settings | living conditions, lack of hygiene; lack of quality healthcare | Africa [25], West Africa [5, 36, 46], Guinea [3], Liberia, Sierra Leone [3, 36]. |
Ebola Virus Disease | fever, fatigue, muscle pain, headache, sore throat, vomiting, diarrhoea, rash, impaired kidney and liver function; internal and external bleeding, low white blood cell and platelet counts, elevated liver enzymes | human to human bodily fluids contact; close contact with the blood, secretions, organs or other bodily fluids of infected animals | living conditions and poor hygiene, lack of quality healthcare, pregnancy, lactation, burial practices | Africa [6, 7, 25], West Africa [5, 29, 43, 45, 47, 48], Gabon [30], Guinea [43], Ivory Coast [25], Liberia [25, 43], Sierra Leone [43], DRC [25, 36, 49], Sudan [25]. |
Parasites | ||||
Endo-parasites, including Opistorchis, Echinostoma, Strongyloides, Taenia, Sarcocystis, hookworm [42], Giardia, Ascaris, Trichuris, Echinococcus [44]. | failure to thrive, skin bumps, rashes, weight loss, increased appetite, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and vomiting, sleeping problems, anaemia, aches and pains, allergies, weakness, malaise, fever | contaminated food and water, bites, contaminated soil | high population density, poor sanitation | Angola, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, DRC, Equaltorial Guinea, Gabon, Liberia, South Sudan [6], Eastern Africa [40], Ethiopia [50], Eritrea, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, China, Laos, Malaysia, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Papua New Guinea, Thailand [6, 38], Kiribati, Marschall Islands, Guatemala, Peru, Jamaica [6]. |
Vector-borne | ||||
Leishmaniasis | cutaneous leishmaniasis: skin lesions, nodules, or papules; visceral leishmaniasis: fever, weight loss, enlargement of the spleen and liver - untreated typically fatal | Leishmania parasite through bite of female phlebotomine sand fly which feed on blood; 70 animal species are natural reservoir hosts, including humans | lack of vector control; environmental changes, and urbanization; malnutrition, population displacement, poor housing/ sanitation, health status, poverty | Ethiopia [50], South Sudan [51, 52], Sudan [53,54,55], Northern Africa Middle East, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia [56], Syria [28, 43, 56, 57], Tunisia, Turkey, Yemen [6], Afghanistan [54, 56], Pakistan [22, 56, 58], Nepal [37], Brazil [52], Colombia, Venezuela [54, 59]. |
Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (CCHF) | fever, myalgia, dizziness, neck pain, stiffness, backache, headache, sore eyes and photophobia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, sore throat; mood swings, confusion; sleepiness, depression lassitude, liver enlargement, tachycardia, lymphadenopathy, petechial rash; hepatitis, liver failure | tick bites, contact with infected livestock | occupational exposure; population movement | Africa, Asia, Europe, Middle East [60], Eastern Mediterranean Region [43], Turkey [28, 60], Afghanistan, Iran [44], Pakistan [61, 62]. |
Rift Valley Fever (RVF) | range from mild flu-like illness to severe lethal haemorrhagic fever | contact with blood or organs of infected livestock; mosquito bites; unpasteurized milk | occupational exposure; lack of vector control | Africa [40, 60, 63], Egypt [63], Kenya [24, 45, 63], Somalia [59, 63], Sudan [63], Tanzania [59], Eastern Mediterranean Region [43], Asia [60]. |